Inclusive Infinity and Radical Particularity: Hartshorne, Hegel and Nis

Inclusive Infinity and Radical Particularity Hartshorne, Hegel and Nishida ABSTRACT God, or in Nishidas case Buddha-nature, is frequently conceptualized as relating to the world by including it indoors the Infinite. Particular elements within the world are non seen as existing in absolute differentiation or total negation from Spirit, God, or Absolute Non-Being. The many an(prenominal) are not excluded but are, on the contrary, included within the One. The logic by which the One includes the Many is a logic of manifold unity, or, as Hegel quite a confidently puts it, true infinity as opposed to spurious infinity. I will argue that such a logic of inclusive infinity is intelligence agent in Hartshorne, Hegel and Nishida. Each uses different terminology and writes with different systemic emphases, but as applied to God or the Ultimate, the function and consequences of the logic of inclusivity are strikingly similar for all three philosophers. Although infinite inclusivity provides a way of unifying the chaotic diversity of existence into a rational totality, there are rally questions that have remained unanswered in the three metaphysicians. Primary among them is the question that sums up within itself many of the others the paradox of radical specialty. The particular elements of the world which are claimed to be included within the parameters of the Ultimate are just that particular fragments of reality. I argue that their particular nature makes it im doable for the Infinite to incorporate them within its sensible horizon without raising serious difficulties. God, or in Nishidas case Buddha-nature, is frequently conceptualized as relating to the world by including it within the Infinite. Particular elements within the world are not seen as ex... ...oblem of including evil but of including within Gods essence contradictory experiences such as joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure at the same time. Is it really possible that the Ultimate fully experience e ach element it contains even when there are a myriad number of elements of the opposite type? Yet the problem of radical particularity is even deeper. It is not just a matter of including evil, nor of including contradictory experiences, but of including any finite experience within the Ultimate. The Infinite cannot experience finite because finite things are finite. I will concede that there may be a metaphysical solution to the problem of radical particularity that may have eluded the present analysis. I have not proven that inclusive Infinity is impossible, merely that there is a significant problem with its conceptualisation that has not been adequately addressed.

Oil In America Essays -- essays research papers

Oil in America          America has many problems with its environment. The facts areclear that most corporations wont take the blame for them. These companies tryto reign ways surface by stating that they are non the ones responsible for theseproblems. They try to protect themselves from the mistakes they made in the crudeindustry and the country. The facts are clear that thither choose been disasters inthe oil field industry in the past ten years and they stand out in history.          The article "Myths We Wouldnt Miss", by the Mobil Corporation,states that there hasnt been a major off shore oil disaster in past years.That may be true and it tries to get Mobil out of a jam but the underlying factis that there have been oil spills and pollutants put into the environment andthat can non be excused. on that point have been facts which prove that there have beendecreases in the fish populat ion and in the aquatic life in the regions wherethe oil companies have been. The negligence of these companies can be shown indifferent fields.          There have been many incidents in the oil field industry datingback to January 28 1969, in Santa Barbara. This may have been a long meter agobut this was a disaster this country has never seen. On the 28 a well burst onthe Santa Barbara Channel. It "raged for ten days and killed 3crewmen".(Easton,10) There were major problems stopping this rig and no matterwhat happened there was already enough damage done. On February 23, the wellerupted again. The environmental consequences were evident. As the oil spilleddown towards the south the numbers were staggering of how much oil actually waspouring out into the ocean. By the month of march 3,000,000 gallons of oilescaped into the ocean.(Easton,251) hither is where the story is corrupted by theoil companies. Union Oil, the company responsibl e for this stated that theirfacts "only showed 250,000 gallons".(Easton,256) There were presidential testsand discovered the oil company was wrong. The most damaging evidence to thesesoil companies was the discovery that was made when the government sent a diverunder the spill to investigate the well. The source showed that more oil leakedthan the oil co... ...panies realize the impact they have on thepublic and realize they all need the business of the American public. Thecompanies act irresponsibly and do not use the appropriate machinery which isnot up to standard. In my own opinion these companies know the consequences ofusing what they have. There is no excuse for the problems that they have.Human error is not calculated right and there is a disaster. We know the kindof damage that is done in the marine life. Why do we insist on doing this thusly?Is there any other way to get the oil here and back? Why do the oil companiesalso try to cover up for the damage that they have done?          The Mobil Corporation states its facts well. Every companyshows that their facts make sense and gets them out of any trouble that theymight be in. They have cited sources in research books and in the articlementioned in the beginning. These sources are all well and good and they dug upthese facts to protect themselves from the truth. It is not something we canpull out of by excuses, but by facing it head on and making it easier on ourplanet and those who will be there for years to come.

Blue Swimming Crabs :: Fishermen, Malaysia, Bardawil Lagoon

Blue swimming guide are an important source of income for fishermen in the Malaysia, also known as ketam bunga or ketam renjong in the name of the local. The spicy up price and increased demands in among community will cause the over-exploitation in exertion of blue swimming maneuver. In 2003, total landings for P. pelagicus were approximately 175,000 tons and come down to 165,000 tons in 2004 (FAO Fish Stat, 2009). This decline from over-exploitation has an impact in some Asian countries (Ikhwanuddin et al., 2005). In Malaysia, statistics from Department of Fisheries (DOF) shows that the landings of P. pelagicus is 3514 tons in 2007 and increase to 4427 tonnes in 2008 only if the landings is decrease in 2009 with 3057 tones. These declines total the holler outs fishing at territorial water in Malaysia as an early marker of deficiency will the crabs in the future because of the increasing the catch and the damage of coastal environments, the amount of P. pelagicus is rapidly decreased. However, P. pelagicus cultured are important from the beginning of the last decade because of high demand for live crabs and crabs products in the export market. Due to their fast growth rates to market size (Josileen and Menon, 2005) and relative ease of hatchery production (Walker, 2006), the aquaculture interest of this species is growing. Blue swimming crabs are of high value and quality, a profitable export markets in Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan and Japan by Australian producers (Stevens, 1997) Now day, P. pelagicus are cultured for the production of the lucrative soft-shell crab market on recirculation and lined pond systems in Australia (ONeill, 2003 and Walker, 2006). Blue Swimming crabs are not only popular in Malaysia but another country a lot of crabs caught along the Coast of Dar es salaam in Tanzania (Chande and Mgaya, 2004), Bardawil Lagoon of Northern Sinai in Egypt (Abdel Razak et al., 2006), Park Bay and the Gulf of Mannar in India, the West Coast of South Australia in Australia (Dixon et al., 2008) and at Southern Trang state of Thailand (Sawusdee and Songrak, 2009). An estimate of blue swimming crabs caught in the waters around southern Australia from 2007 to 2008 was 669 tonnes valued at $ 5,740,000 by Knight and Tsolos (2009). Blue swimming crab landings in India increased from 20,000 to 48,380 tons at 30 percent for years 1977 to 2005 (Samuel et al.

Dionysus :: Ancient Rome Roman History

DionysusDionysus, in addition known by his Roman name Bacchus, which he appears to concord two different origins. Dionysus was the divinity fudge of wine, agriculture and fertility of nature, nevertheless on the other hand he also represents the mystery in religions. Scholars believe that this god came about later in pre-history, unlike other gods. Almost all barbarian nations had their own versions of Dionysus under many names such as, Bacchus, Zagreus, Sabazius, Adonis, Antheus, Zalmoxis, Pentheus, Pan, Liber Pater, or just the liberator. His symbol was the thyrsus, (which is a staff tipped with a pinecone, sometimes with ivy leaves) Dionysus was born of rouse, he was good and gentle to those who honored him, but he also brought madness and destruction to those who ignored him or the rituals of his cult. One day, Zeus was traveling on Earth. He wore a disguise because undisguised no mortal could go steady at him and live. He came to Thebes, and Ancient City of Greece where h e fell in love with Semele, the daughter of King Cadmus. Their love was immense, and before they knew she became pregnant. Semele wanted nothing else but to look into the eyes of her true love. Her nurse, who happened to be the disloyal Hera in disguise, influenced her cruelly. Semele could not stand it any longer and finally, she asked Zeus to give her a good fortune. He was deeply in love with the young women and did anything she pleased. He swore an unbreakable promise on the river Styx that she could have anything she wished for. Meaning no harm, Semele asked to see the god of thunderbolt, Zeus was frightened. He knew that this would mean her guaranteed death. NO he cried in torment. Anything but that. You do not know what youre asking for. She insisted and Zeus miserably kept his word and granted her wish. As he reveled his burning appearance, the unlucky Semele was almost completely destroyed by the fire, except her womb, which she had wrapped with some ivy. Zeus was angry, he quickly took the fetus from the womb, golf stroke open his own thigh, and put the child into it. The child continued to grow in Zeuss thigh, when development in the womb was complete, Zeus gave birth to the baby, Dionysus. The child of fire had been born with a brand new force to be discovered.

The Taming of the Shrew Essays -- English Literature Essays

The Taming of the ShrewExamine the different ways in which Shakespeare presents the attitude towards marriage in the play, The Taming of the Shrew.The Taming of the Shrew is one of Shakespeares earliest comedies, and it shares many essential characteristics with his other romantic comedies, such as Much Ado About Nothing and A Midsummer Nights Dream. These characteristics include light-hearted and slapstick humour, disguises and deception and a happy ending in which most of the characters come out satisfied. The play has been dated from as early as 1594 and as late as 1598. (http//www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/shrew/context.html)The main themes in the play are love, marriage, domination, society expectations, betting and money. Does love really exist in the play or is it just love for money.It seems that the key to a happy and successful marriage is money. This comedy written by Shakespeare uses disguises and that also is a key office to the play. Although it is intended to be a c omedy, there is sometimes a black cloud hanging over it. For instance the way in which Katherina is treated doesnt always seem to be funny instead it is quite cruel and degrading. She eat no meat today, nor none shall eat last night she slept not, nor this evening she shall not. (Page 62, act 4 barb 1 line 182-183)Men saw marriage as a way to get rich love didnt even enter the equation. Padua is a rich area and therefore many suitors fled there in the hope of becoming wealthy. I come to wive it wealthily in Padua, says Petruchio. He asks outright, Then tell me if I get your daughters love, what dowry shall I have with her to wife? (Page 37, act 2 scene 1, line 119-120) The husbands were given a dowry by the father of the daughter when they became married. Women didnt have any say in who they chose to marry instead the purpose was given to the father. If a daughter was not married then they were looked shoddily upon within the society. In this era every woman was to be married o ther they were frowned upon within the community. Further more without Katherina getting married, Bianca would also never marry. Within a family the eldest daughter must be married off early and in this play turned out to be a bonus. Her father keeps from all access of suitors and will not promise her to any man until her older sister first be wed. This is the main an... .... She now obeys what is asked of her by Petruchio like such as when she is told to lecture the other wives about how to be a ingenuous wife, Katherina, I charge thee, tell these headstrong women, what duty they do owe their lords and husbands. Without arguing and saying a word against what is asked of her she gives her advice, Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, thy head, thy sovereign, one that cares for thee.Women in the Elizabethan era were presented as very obedient to their husbands and respectful to them also. They had no power and no say, they were treated badly and nothing would be done to stop the behaviour. In modern society most women have as much say as the men, they are not expected to stay at home and disrobe etc, and instead they go to work as well. Some women are like Katherina before she was supposedly tamed, very out spoken, yet inequality still exists. During the Elizabethan era marriage was like a business contract, if the money is there then so is the signature. Love was never a part of the play and this showed in both Hortensio and Petruchio, who Shakespeare uses to expose this superficial approach to the supposedly romantic notion of marriage.

20th Century Latin American Literature Essay examples -- Essays Papers

20th Century Latin American LiteratureGlobal literatures in English have always played a key role in developing international understanding and appreciation for the social realities and cultural developments beyond Western lifestyles and familiarity. For anthropologists seeking to perceive the social realities of 20th century Latin America, the work of popular authors and novelists of this century is invaluable. Popular authors are the modern mouthpieces of the people and societies who indicate and love them, and thus, novelists can serve as reliable representatives of the social climate from which they draw material and compose their works. Writers manipulate dominant languages of Latin America contractable from rejected colonial powers to express the content and soul of the people who still live and breathe in these 21 countries of rich heritage and music (Gallagher 19731). This order of battle of countries and peoples has experienced parallel histories, cultural formations and literary developments, and because of these profound ties, constitutes a single unit in many senses (Martinez 1982 63). Throughout history, common Iberian patterns were imposed upon men, cultures and disposition that encouraged a blending or unifying process, that is, the creation of the community of nations we call Latin America and today Latin Americans extend their literature in the worldno longer concerned about whether or not they express America or their representative countries (Martinez 1982 64).However, translating literature from one language to other for the benefit of international audiences is a tricky political process, and the history of the evolving Latin American novel testifies to the wild dynamics of language and human identi... ... Texas Press.Martiniez, Jose Luis. Unity and Diversity. In Latin America in Its Culture, vol. 1 Latin America in its Literature. Cesar Fernndez Moreno and Julio Ortega, eds. New York Holmes & Meier Publishers. Minta, Stephen1987 Gabr iel Garca Marquez Writer of Colombia. London Jonathan Cape. Simpkins, Scott.1995 Sources of Magical Realism/Supplements to Realism in Contemporary Latin American Literature. In Magical Realism Theory, business relationship Community. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris, eds. Durham Duke University Press.Slemon, Stephen.Magical Realism as Postcolonial Discourse. In Magical Realism Theory, History Community. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris, eds. Durham Duke University Press. Swanson, Phillip, ed.Introduction Background to the Boom. In Landmarks in Modern Latin American Fiction. London Routledge.

20th Century Latin American Literature Essay examples -- Essays Papers

20th Century Latin Ameri ordure LiteratureGlobal literatures in English cast always played a key role in developing worldwide understanding and appreciation for the social realities and cultural developments beyond Western lifestyles and familiarity. For anthropologists quest to perceive the social realities of 20th century Latin the States, the work of popular authors and novelists of this century is invaluable. Popular authors are the modern mouthpieces of the people and societies who read and love them, and thus, novelists can serve as reliable representatives of the social climate from which they draw material and compose their works. Writers manipulate dominant languages of Latin America inherited from rejected colonial powers to express the content and soul of the people who still live and breathe in these 21 countries of rich heritage and music (Gallagher 19731). This collection of countries and peoples has experienced parallel of latitude histories, cultural formations a nd literary developments, and because of these profound ties, constitutes a single unit in many senses (Martinez 1982 63). Throughout history, common Iberian patterns were imposed upon men, cultures and nature that encouraged a blending or unifying process, that is, the creation of the community of nations we call Latin America and today Latin Americans extend their literature in the worldno longer concerned about whether or not they express America or their representative countries (Martinez 1982 64).However, translating literature from one language to another for the benefit of international audiences is a tricky political process, and the history of the evolving Latin American novel testifies to the wild dynamics of language and human identi... ... Texas Press.Martiniez, Jose Luis. Unity and Diversity. In Latin America in Its Culture, vol. 1 Latin America in its Literature. Cesar Fernndez Moreno and Julio Ortega, eds. New York Holmes & Meier Publishers. Minta, Stephen1987 Gabrie l Garca Marquez Writer of Colombia. London Jonathan Cape. Simpkins, Scott.1995 Sources of Magical Realism/Supplements to Realism in Contemporary Latin American Literature. In Magical Realism Theory, History Community. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris, eds. Durham Duke University Press.Slemon, Stephen.Magical Realism as Postcolonial Discourse. In Magical Realism Theory, History Community. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris, eds. Durham Duke University Press. Swanson, Phillip, ed. instauration Background to the Boom. In Landmarks in Modern Latin American Fiction. London Routledge.

International Relations Theory Essay

The study of the foreignistic relations has traditionally foc rehearsed on the study of the causes of war and conflict between the states and the build of peace. However, in the 21st century we ar more concerned with the question of how the global relations seat be identified, and with who lays the power of cosmos administration. The global politics and international relations concepts have been developed over centuries. The key theories have established the commonly accepted methods of explaining the relationships between the states, and the way in which nations conduct their craftes.We can distinguish between many strands of thought, each extensive and often mutable. Thus, it is hard to define which ar the most equitable and had most leverage in the international relations or global politics. However, we can certainly highlight few, which are seen as the most important or even crucial. One of them is Marxism, developed by Karl Marx in the 19th century. Marxism sought to pur port the varied terrains in a new and unprecedented way. Some of the key aphorisms include the materialism, class strategy possibility, the dialectic approach to history and of course a critique to generousism and capitalist economy.Alas, the Marxism theory was precluded in the 1990s, after the oppression of commonwealth, economic instability, poverty and unhappiness under the communistic regularise became evident. However, in the latter years of extreme economic and social crisis, many scholars once again engaged in the critical insight of capitalism, bonny as Marx did centuries ago. Marxism is the only theory available, which seeks to completely undermine capitalism, and expose its fundamental flaws which capitalists try to avoid or divert, only if cannot overcome.However, it is not only limited to the economics. It presents extensive rendering of social and political relations and ways in which societies can determine it. It offers a new concept of freedom, far more expan sive and empowering than the traditional liberal intellectual. In this essay I will critically assess the extent to which Marxism has contri saveed to an understanding of the global politics. The global politics otensibly consists of many strands of scholar thought , epitome and theories .The acuurate and cognizant way of explaining or arranging the different approaches would be to put them in two categories mainstreem and the rest. The parenial mainstreem theories of international relations are realism, liberalism, neo-realism and neo-liberalism. Other vail approaches share very much with mainstreetm but have been seen rather as develpoments or critiques or of it, often providing a very distinct analysys . One of such is Marxism. Karl Marx developed new image with some linkages to the previous theories.He offers a distinct approach and analysis of political, social and economic life. Marxs aim was to expose the hidden truth close to the world of politics, and to higlight to pe ople that history, politics and our social life is not something that only happens to us (independently from our actions), but rather something wich happens with our presence and input, and t here(predicate)fore can withal be transformed by us. We can choose weather or not we want to live in a political-social system which we inherited, or to alter it if we are dissatissfied with it.In this sense politics appears as a struggle over processess of social-self production. The ability to steer various processess in one direction or another, and so shape the world in whcih we live in, produce a social change. Marxs expalins this as a dialectical or process orientated approach to understanding our history and politics. The pastal tensions and cirumstances opneded up various possibilities for actors (agents embodied in institutions), to produce a change. As humans we have a freedom or in other words a collective ability to shape ourselfs and our world.This concept of freedom is broader and more empowering , than in the traditional liberal thinging (freedom of choice, our wants and inescapably in the market). another(prenominal) important aphorism of Karl Marx was diachronical materialism. According to Marx all life is constantly evolving . The evolution results from the clash of two opposing forces. The same must happen with peolpe. For centuries military man experienced struggles and clashes mainly between 2 groups of people. In the acient world it was the slaves and the lords, in the tenderness the peasants (surfs)and the lad owners, and in capitalism the capitalists (burgouise) and the working class (proletariat).Each historic era is different , has its own dynamic an dlogic, based on a dominant mode of production primitive, feudalism and finally capitalism. For Marx each stage had its beginbing, middle but also an end. Marx also belived that history is shaped by the material basis of society. He recognised base and superstructure division of society. He i ncluded education, politics, religion, culture, media to the superstructure.Underneeth the superstructure there lies base consisted of relations of production (burguoise), and means of production everything which is owned by burguise needed for procution such as technology for obiter dictum). The base in Marx view , creates a particular type of political authority which is mostly concerned with protecting and promoting the interests of the dominant class. The base can change the history and the society. The key implication here is that the people who conctrol the material base (the means and forces of production), ulitmately control the society, politics and the world we live in. He recognised tha states as the puppet of a dominant class.Marx also offered an extensive and profound crtique to caqpitalism, imperialism and globaloization. He did not undermined it. It is fair to say that Marx understood capitalims as the most ample theorey that every existed but nevertheless, he recog nised that it was nutrition on a borrowed time. For Marx the capitalism had fundamental flaws as it was exploitative and oppressive system. He examined the features of capitalism, praised it for the competetive nature whihc would recsult and many spohisticated advancemnts, presented its flaws and atributes.Karl Marx acknowledge that constant urge for profit wouldstimulate the concept process in various fields such as technology, media, medicine. Nevertheless, the necessity to generate higher and higher profit is the main downfall of the globalization and capitalism concept. As a result capitalism will move from crisis to criris, and the society will become increasingly unequal. Marx specified that capitalists will attempt to reslove one crisis, but as one problem would be resolved, another would be created in its place.We can clearly see how this process works taking for instance the sub-prime impart case. As people did not have enough notes , the demand failed. The profits of v arious cooperations also failed (as demand stimalates the supply and the prices). The banks offered creditd cards and loans. In ferment people bought more goods, and contributed to the economy. Everyone was happy in the process, the baks, the producers and of course the working class who would now finally buy the goods and services they wanted. One problem was solved.However, after a while people did not meet their repayments. The banks had to confiscate their houses, cars, and other possesions as a result. Now banks were left with empty houses, and a huge deficit of money. The enterpreneours who invested and supplied banks with the money lost a vast ammount of money, many bankrupted. The taxes rates for the lower and the middle were risen, and the fee cut so the capitalists could once again make profit. Alas, less wages and bigger taxes meant less dissposable income to pay for the new good and services.The capitalists once again have to battle low profits, and find new ways to st ay in business, The whole process reapeats itself, and no concrete and trusty solution is found. Marx also crtiticises the globalization process. The global capitalism means alliances of globalised capitalists, in order to do the business together and gain more control. This aspect of globalization within the context of capitalism will also prove fatal, as the interconcetivity between various world economies could strengthl bring doom to all if one falls ( we can see it happening with the hyousing bubble burst in the USA, resulting from the sub-prime lending .This crisis not only abnormal the USA economy, but spreaded to the rest of the world resulting in the global economical crises and recession). Marxs posited that economic relations between people was center of attention to absolutely everything. The human needs for housing, security, food, drive human interactions. Furthermore he stasted that private property divided the world. The human persistency to barter and to create profit was a recepie for distater. Capitalism develpse productive powers of human societies, but it does in rather undemocratic manner, through exploating and subduing the working class.As a result it distors the real historiacal possibilities for social self-determination. Socially empowered people under the capitalistic system, are prevented from realising their full productive powers and enjoying their fuller forms of freedom. Under tha capitalism ideaology supports the historiucally specific forms of social activity and organization, which appears to be necessarry and natural universal conditions. It takes on the apperance of unchangable, and hard-wired withing the society.This is of course mistification. Within the context of capitalism , we are isolated individuals, therefore we confornt our social envirometn not as collective product. We views it in terms of constraint on our individual chocies. This way of understanding social relations as parennial, universal and natural pr events us from looking for possibilities of transformation, or imagining the alternative possible worlds. Marxism inspired forthcoming analysis in the international relations arena .One of the most significant was the crtitical theory. The critical theory was develpoed in 1930s by the frankfurt teach of thoutgt. The term frnakfurt school refers to theorists originally assosiated with the Institute for Social Research at Frankfurt University . The early frnakfurt shcool tehorist Horkheimer and Adorno, began too lose faith in the revolutionary potential of the proletaria. The also saw how in the west Marxism was marxism was being transformed into a doctrisn of economic determinism.In the face of these developments, they wanted to retain a critical modernistic critical and potentially progressive role for social theory, but were wary of the orthodox Marxisms preocupation with production and the coresponding emphasis on the historical role of the proletariat The core concepts of the Crtical theory are that critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity , and also that critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology.Critical theoriests developed a key concept that the objectively valid forms of knowledge could not be established independently of the social context and social norms. The theories which submitthat they provide objective truth are profoundly direct. In their view idealogy (or theories assosiated with it), are just a belief that oue perspective is the truth. The way in which things appera from the economic standpoint of our consciousness. They asked a question can idealogy be proven, is it just a mode of belief.After all idealogy is without conciousness. Is it fair to say that things actually are the way they appear to me? The frankfurt scholars went on explaining that in each historic period the dominant class sets the idealogy. In the late capitalism it is ultimately a burgouise idealogy. So the ideas whic are the base of every aspect of our society , (for instance our current work ethic or current standards of moral behaviour) do not have to be universal, just and correct. The frankfurt scholars have undermined the positivist forms of scienfitic knowledge.They claim that positivism and instrumental reason discourse denys the alternative values and future possible worlds. Gramsci went a bit further and develpoed a theory of hegemony as a form of political power whcih relied upon the consent than coercion. In a hegemonic social situation, dominant groups (classes, class fractions and their verious alliers) articulate a social vision which claims to serve the intersts of all, and they use selective incentives to recruit junior partners into their coalition and to didivde the disable opositionHe belived that in modern and a dvances capitalistsic societies, hegemonic power cleverness be promoted via media, education, art, literature as well as political parties. Under these conditions various groups might be led to consent to the powerof dominant groups. This action would make the use of obviously opressive and coercive power unnecessary.. He also argued that hegemony should be continously chalenged by the civil society. In this way he hoped that capitaslist culture would be challenged by a counter-hegemonic political culture.In short, he speculated that peolpe might start to think of their economic lives as having a significant political importance . Gramsci hoped that they might finally question the universal capitalisms unified separation of the ploitical fromt he economic aspects of life. Another important approach to global politics, which derives from Marxism is the World systems theory , which was fathered by Immanueakl Wallestein in the 1970s. He traced the rise of the world system to the 16th century westbound Europe, whihc then spraded to the rest of the world. The E3urope feudal economy suffered crisi and was transformed into capitalism.The west quikly utilisised their advantages and gained control and power, over the most of the world economy (using colonialism, slavery, imperialism and globalisation together with the unfair trade). This actions resulted in an unequal develpoment, which instead of diminishing grows even further. Wallestein also supported Marxs previous view that the suposely tree distnict areas of politics, socio9logya nd economics are in fact combined. In his writing Wollestein provided a structural explenation of the global inequallity between states. He viewd it as a pyramis.At the top of the pyramid lye the core states. Whuhc dominate the system. They all are in favour of capitalistic global economy for their own elevation. Examples in todays world inlude USA, Japan or Western Europe. Beneeth the core states lys the semi-periphery states, which are seeking to elevate themselfs to claim their place among the core . Examples include the BRIC countries Brasil. Rusia, India or China. At the very bottom of the pyramid lies the peripher, the weakest of the states (third wolrd countires ). They are normally rulled by the puppet goverments , subservient to the global capitalists.Ruled by the core states. They will never be given the standars of life they deserve through their inustry. They usually provide most of the natural resources and products which are greedly devour by the core, only to recive poor technoplogy and ocasional aid in go along. People in the third world countries (peripherians) are the main victims of this opression, as they benefit less from the spohisticated technology and innovation that capitalism (through drive for profit) brings about. This generates a fundamental innequality between the nations. ConclusionThe forms of Marxian critical theory (further develpoed by the Frankfurt school and by Gramsci), l ead us to a conlusion that the claims of scientific objectivity assosiated with positivistiv theories of International relations are in fact profoundly misleading . This approach differs a lot from the mainstreem realistic and liberalistsi approaches of the international relations. More recently there has been a sort of renaissance of Marxian international theory. It began during the 1990s and gained its momentum with the US war on terror after the 9/11/.The American war on terror is seen by many as the twnety-first-centuray imperialism . Many scholars return to Marxism wirtings and its later developments, to find it very accurate in the sphere of the global politics today. Undoubtedly, Marxism contributed in large means to our understanding of the global politics. It is the only reliable source of the critique of the capitalistis system we currently live in. Furthermore it explains and provides an analis of it. It stresses the interdependence of social-political- and economical asp ects of life , not only within the domestic arena but also on the global scale.Marxisms highlights the global innequalities that the capitalism creates, demonstrates and unmasks the constant exploitation and mannipulation of the working class. It stresses the importance of all idvividuals, and their ability to transform and alter the world nearly us which includes our political system, current moral and ethical forms of behaviour, the ecoonomic system and every other aspect of our live. Marx and the later scholars influenced by his writing, do not propose a new clear system to replace capitalism. The presumptions are left to us .Within the concept of marism the idealogy can always be altered, it shall not be seen as something parenially just and fair. It is also seen as the tool of the higher class, who usess it to explain the world to the lower class and further to control it. Therefore Marx saw idealogy only a way of explainign and understanding the world rather than verity. This approach had big significance in the global politics theory. It inspired new starnds of thought in international relations and of course met with a fierce critique of positivistic scholars and thinkers.

Assignment: Optimism and Health

Assignment Optimism and Health Andrea Pulis PSY/220 October 9, 2012 Ratonya Bennett For this paper, I researched two peer reviewed articles which discusses the effects of optimism and psychological health. The first one that I gear up is called Optimism and Physical Health A Meta-analytic Review by Heather N. Rasmussen, Ph. D. , Michael F. Scheier, Ph. D. , and Joel B. Greenhuse, Ph. D. It was published in 2009. The second article that I located is called Perceived schoolman laterality mediating the effects of optimism and social support on college students psychological health by Joelle C.Ruthig, Tara L. Haynes, Robert H. Stupnisky, and Raymond P. Perry. In Optimism and Physical Health, there was a study conducted to fix out the birth between optimism and physical health outcomes. correspond to their findings, the data suggests that optimism is a significant predictor of physical health. I would fox to agree with this study and I find it validating. One thing that I found int eresting in the article was the significance of pessimism and physical health.We learned from the study that optimism can have a unconditional effect on physical health but we also learn that pessimism can have a negative effect on physical health. According to the article Optimism and Physical health, It may well be the case that it is the presence or absence of pessimism that is important in determining physical health outcomes or else than the presence or absence of optimism(p. 247). What this is telling me is that having the presence of pessimism can have a more negative effect on physical health or else than the compulsory effect optimism has on physical health.To summarize, In general, it is clear from this review that optimism is related to physical health. It is also clear that the link between optimism and health is stronger for innate health outcomes than for objective health outcomes (p. 248). This study really shows this information and it can be said that for futur e studies that they can move past this understanding and do further research. This could lead to what specifically does optimism effect and how to possibly teach those who are suffering physically how to be optimistic.In the second article I found, Perceived Academic Control, the article discusses the psychological effect that optimism has on college students, particularly freshmen and how they are doing psychologically at the end of their freshmen year. The study assessed year end GPA, stress level and depression level. According to the academic journal, As expected, optimism and support predicted less stress and depression, yet their beneficial effects were mediated by student PAC (Ruthig, Haynes, Stupnisky, Perry, 2008).PAC stands for perceived academic control. Having optimism can buffer the students for being susceptible to stress and depression and having optimism can protect freshmans health when facing the challenges of transitioning from high school to college. mobilise a bout it, a lot of students decide to leave home to go to college. They will be in a spic-and-span environment, a new home, new friends, new restaurants, possibly new weather and many other factors. Believing in being optimistic is very beneficial.I can say from personal assure that I was very pessimistic and ended up dropping out of college after my freshman year because I could not handle it. I never thought positive. I did not believe, expect, or hope that things will turn out well and I did not have the attitude of somebody who feels positive or confident. I think and I know that if I was more optimistic or even possessed a hint of optimism, I would have stuck my years out at college. However, I was so depressed by the end of my freshman year that I could not even think of outlet back.I associated that place as negative and I was not going to put myself through it any further. It is safe to say that I believe whole-heartedly that optimism does have a psychological effect on in dividuals or in particular, on me. Both of these articles bring up how powerful thinking positively can be on individuals. You can always think negatively and think that nothing will turn out well and in fact, it might not. Or, you can be someone that thinks that things will ultimately turn out for the better, that there is positivity out there and that the fruitcake is half full rather than half empty.I chose to think that the glass is half full. References Ruthig, J. , Haynes, T. , Stupnisky, R. , & Perry, R. (2009). Perceived Academic Control mediating the effects of optimism and social support on college students psychological health. Social Psychology Of Education, 12(2), 233-249. doi10. 1007/s11218-008-9079-6 Rasmussen, H. N. , Scheier, M. F. , & Greenhouse, J. B. (2009). Optimism and Physical Health A Meta-analytic Review. Annals Of Behavioral Medicine, 37(3), 239-256. doi10. 1007/s12160-009-9111-x

Logic in the East and the West

The article written by Nisbett in Chapter 7 of the book (please indicate the title of the whole book here) presents a unclouded idea of how logic exists differently in the eastern United States and the West. The discussion of the writer presented various studies and various terms that beat been utilise to support and weave together the different ideas.The causations terms atomic number 18 worth defining for these will clarify some portions of the study. First, there are French words include in the title and one should translate this into English terms to get a better picture of the article. Ce nest pas logique translated to English would be it is non logical. Weaving it back to the title, it would then be It is not logical or Youve got a point there?It is quite unsaid as to why the author used the language of French for the title. Second, the Latin phrase modus ponens also deserves some attention. In English, the term modes ponens is the method of affirming (modus ponens and modus tollens). Third, the word atypical would also be encountered and this is delimit as not conforming to the usual type or expected pattern (atypical). It means the opposite of the typical argument.Going back to the idea of logic in the east and the west, the author posed several studies conducted before to support the current hypothesis that there is a difference in the innovation of logic in the two regions. A study that was cited by the author was that of Ara Norenzayan, Edward E. Smith, Beom Jun Kim, and Nisbett, the author himself, showed that the insignificant interest for the study of logic in the East may be attributed to the distrust of decontextualizationas well as a distaste for making inferences on the basis of underlying abstract propositions alone (Nisbett 168).This was not proven by only one study made by the same authors but actually two studies they did. To further support the results of the study, the authors administered survey methods to respondents who are Korean, European American, and Asian American. In addition to this, Ara Norenzayan and Beom Jun Kim made a presumption that East Asians would be less likely to have their beliefs moved in an unpleasant direction by pondering information that implied some desired outcomes (Nisbett 172). To do this, they administered questionnaires to Korean and American respondents containing propositions. The result was that the Americans continued towards the negative ones and the Koreans avoided this (Nisbett 173).The author used propositions and discussed it according to the logic that may be applied to it. For example, the deductive arguments All birds have ulnar arteries, therefore all eagles have ulnar arteries and All birds have ulnar arteries, therefore all penguins have ulnar arteries which the author used to show the persuasiveness of typical and atypical arguments for the different respondents (Nisbett 168-9). It was stated by the author that there is a difference on how convinced the Ko reans are to typical arguments than atypical arguments compared to the European American and Asian American. The atypical argument for the previous deductive argument is the latter for penguins are not typically seen as birds.Works Citedatypical. Encarta Dictionaries. DVD. Redmond, WA Microsoft, 2006.modus ponens and modus tollens. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 23 Mar. 2008 .Nisbett, Richard. The Geography of Thought How Asians and Westerners Think Differentlyand Why. New York The impoverished Press, 2003.

Evaluate the accuracy of “The Clouds” in portraying the political, social, economic and religious life of people in the fifth century BC Athens

Greek theatre has always been a significant constituent in the by and present Athenian society. Fifth Century BC Athenian society proposed numerous playwrights in their festivities honouring the god, Dionysus. Amongst the many crowd favourites was a legend to describe him in the least, Aristophanes. His works of satiric comedy are still celebrated and enjoyed today. One such example of his famous satirical works is The Clouds, written in 423BC. The Clouds is nearly a father, Strepsiades, who is in debt because of his sons expensive horse hobby.Strepsiades tries to convince his son, Pheidippides, to attend the Thinkery (a school for sophistry), to learn the art of double talk in the hope of outwitting his creditors in court. However, Pheidippides denies his fathers request, so instead Strepsiades decides to enrol himself. Strepsiades attempts to learn sophistry but fails miserably when his old age gets the best of him. Another attempt to encourage his son to enrol becomes made and Pheidippides learns to double-talk from the teacher Socrates. This is later regretted when, at the climax of the story, Pheidippides uses double-talk to justify him beating his father.Strepsiades, out of anger and rage, then sets fire to the Thinkery. The main theme dealt with in the The Clouds is that of new versus old. Aristophanes challenges the mathematical group thinkers like sophists and the imaginative thinkers like Socrates for oppressing the traditional values held and demoralising the youth. Another theme pertaining to the clouds is the confliction of religion and science. In fifth century BC, around the time when Aristophanes wrote the clouds, the convolution of scientific theory had just begun.With religion prevailing at the time, such atheistic thinking brought about by people like Socrates was firstly vicious and secondly prone to ridicule by conservative figures such as Aristophanes. The Clouds is rather accurate in depicting Athenian conduct. However the percept ion of Socrates pellucid in the text is not parallel to that of Socrates in real life. Aristophanes, like many, linked Socrates with the rest of the Sophists for the reason that he was a philosophical thinker, that is, he came up with reasoning without relying on faith. However, Socrates, like Aristophanes rejected the ideas of the Sophists.The sophists argued that guiding principles of a society, such as justice and truth, varied according to the needs of men in a particular time and place. In teaching their students, the sophists emphasised the art of telephone lineative discussion and came to be associated with deceptive and hollow reasoning. This is depicted in the clouds where better argument represents traditional thinking and the worse argument depicts that of the sophists. Despite Aristophanes rather critical portrayal of Socrates, the description of him as expressed finished Pheidippides as pale-faced charlatans, who havent any tog is actually relatively true.Since Soc rates wore simple apparel, and walked barefoot through the streets, his ideas and peculiarity made him an easy subject of derision and he was often thought of as a fraudulent figure. Socrates was also ridiculed for the fact he believed in one intelligent being as the creator of the universe. This went against the religious life of the Athenians. In The Clouds, Poseidon, god of horses is blaspheme on by Pheidippides and later again by Pasias (one of Strepsiades creditors) who also swears by Hermes and Zeus. These accounts are an accurate reflection the religious beliefs upheld by Athenian society.However, since the clouds is a satirical play, Aristophanes pokes fun at Socrates who is depicted to believe in the vortex as the ruler, not Zeus. This part of the play is not accurate, as it does not hold a factual purpose but rather that of entertainment and humour. Rather than just analysing The Clouds on its plot, a more comprehensive read of the text reveals further expound on 5th cen tury Athenian life, all of which are precise in information. For instance, it is apparent in the text that concepts such as creditors, debtors and interest, were already in use at the time.This shows that Athenian society had in place forms of financing that still exist today. Also, there is a clear depiction of the judicial brass present at the time. It is evident in the text that when taking a person to court a deposit must be made and if the showcase was lost the deposit was forfeited. Other instances in which The Clouds has effectively portrayed Athenian life is through their currency, such as drachmas and obols and also in their legal system, when the remediate Argument makes reference to the punishment of adultery, this being having a radish shoved up his anus and his pubic hair singed with hot ash.The people of the 5th century BC Athenian society were rather wealthy and could afford slaves. The polarisation of the two classes of people within society is portrayed rather we ll. This is evident with Strepsiades servant Xanthias who lives an unpleasant life when compared to Pheidippides who indulges in the costly hobby of buying racehorses. This is further exemplified when Pheidippides mother insists to add -hippos (meaning horse) to Pheidippides name at birth so he could have the marks of the gamy classes. In conclusion, The Clouds is a satirical play and should not be taken for face value.However, his portrayal of issues and figures within the society give an accurate insight into some of the beliefs held by the general public and if treated carefully could be considered as reliable historical source. A serious theme underlies this comedy, namely Ideas espoused by pedestal thinkers like the sophists and by highly imaginative thinkers like Socrates are undermining traditional values and corrupting the morals of youths. The sophists maintained that the guiding principles of a society, such as justice and truth, were relative concepts-that is, these pr inciples changed according to the needs of men in a particular time and place.What was right and just in Athens was not unavoidably right and just in another society. One mans virtue could be another mans vice. In teaching their students, the sophists emphasized the art of argumentative discourse and came to be associated with deceptive and specious reasoning, lampooned effectively in The Clouds. Another target of Aristophanes was Socrates, along with his associate, Chaerephon. Ironically, Socrates, like Aristophanes, renounced the methods and ideas of the sophists.Nevertheless, Socrates angered the establishment (1) by declaring that the validity of many long-standing precepts could not be proved by logical reasoning, (2) by rejecting the Olympian gods and sometimes speaking of a single intelligent being as the creator of the universe, and (3) by ventilation dangerous ideas among young people. In addition, he alienated many Athenians because he was ugly and untidy (sometimes negl ecting to bathe for a long while), wore simple apparel, and walked barefoot through the streets. Thus, his ideas and eccentricities made him a ripe subject for ridicule.

Thorn Queen Chapter Twenty-Seven

When I crossed over to the castle in the spine Land, I was surprised to find Nia sitting on the floor beside my rabbit paperweight. Her knees were drawn up, and her showcase-which appeared tear-streaked-rested on her knees. Yet, when she saw me, her demonstrate lit up like the insolate bursting from behind clouds.Your majesty she cried, springing up. Some of them saidthey said you wouldnt come cover charge. But I knew. I knew you would.The devotion in the girls eyes was startling. Nia had been other servant passed from Dorian, and it had never occurred to me that she would serve me come out(a) of such love.Of course I came back, I said softly. Why wouldnt I?She averted her eyes. After everything that happened, andwell, because of Queen Katrice. There are those who assumed youd annul us and stay in the world of the humans.I didnt bother pointing out that abandoning this land would kill me. I was too shocked by something else. They patternthey idea Id just start a war and le ave?I knew you wouldnt, she said fervently. I knew you wouldnt.I gave her a sm solely, comforting smile while a ravel twisted in my stomach. Take me to Shaya and Rurik.The two of them were surprised by my arrival, and something told me they hadnt doubted I would return either. I could tell by the compassion on Shayas face that what Leith had through to me was common grappleledge. To my surprise, it was Rurik I took the most comfort from. He didnt question my appearance. He scoreered no sympathies. He simply jumped straight to business.Weve gathered as legion(predicate) soldiers as we could while youve been gone, he said. Some are camped outside, and Dorians said hell send reinforcements-his militarys much larger. The majority of yours is in Highmore. Well aim to determine the best way to pass on them.For a moment, I felt dizzy as he continued rattling off military strategy. What was going on? What was I doing? I was a girl from Tucson whod grown up in a middle-class neighborh ood. How on earth was I standing here, listening to a fairy soldier beg off how to lead a war?I held up a hand. Waitbefore you go any further. Is thereis there any way this stinkpot be avoided? Kiyos words came back to me, and I hated to say what I did next. Is there any way to develop peace?Ruriks eyes widened, and shock and exasperation filled his features. Peace? After what-Shaya silenced him with a gesture of her own. Yes, actu protagonist. Katrice send a rather long letter more or less it.Sowe could get her to come across that it Was an accident? Hardly. I mean, could Katrice let all of this go, considering Leith started it?Shaya cleared her throat uncomfortably, and Rurik looked angry. Well, she began, not entirely. For Katrice not to go to war, she demands that we become her subject landed estate and has very specific expand on the kinds of tribute and taxes she requires for that. She alsoshe also says that you must marry her nephew in place of her son and tie this k ingdom to her through that branch of the family. My impression is she sent a similar list of demands to Dorian-aside from the nephew part-which he refused rather, ah, indelicately.I stared, my mouth agape. That was not what I had in mind. How could Katrice demand those kinds of things after what Leith had done? How dare she act as though I had done something wrong? Yes, I could imagine her grief for her only son. I wasnt that heartless. Yetwhat she was suggesting was ludicrous. And if she thought I would ever, ever let another member of her family lay a hand on meI turned back to Rurik as though the issue of peace with Katrice had never been mentioned. Later, I would demand Shaya to help me compose a formal response to Katrices letter, something along the lines of I am the Thorn Queen. Fuck off.What should I do next? I asked Rurik.He smiled, a fierce delight in his eyes. You should speak to the soldiers gathered here and make an official declaration of war. And therefore you shoul d go to Highmore and speak to the ones there. They dont even know you as their queen yet, let alone the person move them to fight. And you should practice up on your magic, both for battle and to show your own people that that rowan tree bitch cant touch you.I shivered at the feelings his words inspired in me. In Tucson, Id been trying to hide from my magic, but now it was calling to me again. And with this threat from Katrice-no, this vex from Katrice-there was nothing I wanted more than to summon all the forces of nature and rip her apart.Dorian is coming here-today, I think, said Shaya, interrupting my murderous thoughts. Follow his lead. He knows what to do.I wasnt entirely sure what that meant. The only thing I felt certain of was that I wasnt quite ready to go over the maps Rurik had laid out and examine all the troop placements he had in mind. Id always sucked at Risk and had a feeling this would be similar. Besides, I hadnt returned to the Thorn Land to make war-not right at this second, at least. Id come because of the dream from last night, the dream where Id felt at peace.Because at the moment, I felt no peace. A nobility queen wanted to lead armies in and kill my people-and I was supposed to do the same to her. Id just broken up with my boyfriend, someone I love dearly, because I-possibly irrationally-held him responsible for not protecting me from an assailant. And as for that assailantwell, his face be quiet flashed in my mind, and no matter how much time passed, I couldnt go overm to rid myself of that dirty feeling within me or my repulsion at being touched.I swore to Rurik that Id talk to him later, that I needed some time to myself first, and left them both for one of the castles enclosed gardens. It was the one I frequently meditated in, where Shaya was still attempting to grow grass and where Kiyo and I had made love. I sat down there cross-legged, victorious in the sun on the orange rocks around me and relishing in the faint breeze t hat stirred the branches of the mesquite and smokethorn trees. A tiny lizard scurried off behind a rock, and I heard what sounded like a hummingbird-or a big-ass bee-in a cluster of nearby flowers.I cleared my mind and tried to decease with and regain the land like I had before, but for whatever reason, the connection didnt come. Panic seized me. Had the events with Leith broken something within me? Had I lost my ability to revive the kingdom? I sat there sweating, wondering what would happen to the land if I couldnt connect to it. The heat eventually made me sleepy, and I lay down on the grass, my hands digging into the earth.When I woke up, two things immediate became apparent. First, I feltbetter. I felt strong and refreshed, and all around me, the colors and scents seemed stronger and more vivid. I still wasnt happy about the impending war, but that horrible feeling in methe bitterness Leith had leftwell, it had lessened. The air hummed around me, and for a disorienting second , I couldnt tell where I ended and the land began. It was then that I realized why my meditation hadnt worked. I had been in no condition to heal the land. It had had to heal me. I was energized now, ready to do anything. Ready to lead a war.The other thing I noticed after waking was that Jasmine was sitting right beside me, gray-headed eyes staring into mine. I bolted upright. What the hell are you doing here? I exclaimed. Youre not supposed to be loose.Girards cuffs were still upon her, and she jerked her head back toward the castle. Im not merely loose.I followed her motion and saw a dozen guards, all keeping a respectful distance, but all watching Jasmine closely. When Volusian had disappeared, Rurik had undoubtedly increased her certificate detail.Jasmine, I said, Im not really in the mood for your banter, okay? Save your whining and insults for a day when I dont have to worry about having caused a war.Her face was perfectly calm. I heard what happened to you.I braced for smu gness. Yeah, Im sure everyone has.Ill fight for you, you know.Look, Im sure-wait. What did you say? I stared at her, time lag to see that composure crack. It didnt. She was still sobering and actually looked older than her age.He had no right. I told you before no one does that to a daughter of Storm King. Not even to you. I was slow for a moment, still waiting for a punch line. Jasmineyou hate me.She nodded. Yup. But that doesnt change what happened. No one does that to our father either and gets away without punishment. Dorian should jibe Katrice too.I decided not to mention that nothing had been done to our father technically, seeing as he had died years ago. What will you do exactly? resembling thing you will. Fight. Use my magic. Summon monsters.ButI mean, even if youre trying to, um, protect our family honor, you realize youre still helping me in the process, right? I thought you wanted to destroy me and go have Dads world-conquering grandson.Oh, she said sweetly, I still do. And I will. But were going to deal with Katrice first. Our fathers heir cannot be born from rape. I told you before-only someone worthy. That bastard wasnt, and his mother has to pay for it. Once shes donewell, then Ill deal with you. Besides, someones got to take her kingdom when we kill her. Might as well be me.Whoa. There were so many parts of Jasmines logic that were flawed that I didnt even know where to start. I didnt entirely know the story of her own conception, but my mother had been raped. God knew how many other women Storm King had taken advantage of I found it hypocritical of Jasmine to take such a superior moral ground about his heir in light of that. Still, I couldnt deny the fact that she would be useful, and if that was the reasoning it took for her to help me, so be it. It would also be handy to not have her trying to kill me.Well, then, thanks, I said at last. I decided not to mention just then that there was no way in hell I would ever let her rule the Rowan Land. Details, details.Jasmine looked supremely pleased. So I can go free then, right?I scoffed. Not a chance.But Im helping youYeah, and in the same breath, you talked about how you want to usurp me. Look I glanced back at her guardians. I would have to consult with Rurik about those least likely to try to knock her up, now that Volusian was missing. Some of my soldiers were female. You can wander the castle more-under guard, of course. And Ill see about I frowned, suddenly recalling my helpers at Arts house. They were close to Jasmines age, relatively speaking, and for Markelle at least, I had no doubts whatsoever of her loyalty. I wondered if she might have the makings of a bodyguard/friend. Ill see about getting someone your own age to hang out with you.Jasmine scowled. Thats not what I had in mind.Yeah, well, your cell in the dungeon is still available.She gave me her trademark sullen glare and then stormed off back inside. Nonetheless, I felt like she really would help me, a nd frankly, I was going to need everyone I could find to get me out of this mess. Kiyo had implied that Katrice might call in some allies, and if this became about multiple kingdoms squaring offI stood up, suddenly feeling ill about it all once more. The flames of passion and initiative that had flared in me earlier began to flicker uneasily. I couldnt do this. I couldnt lead an army. I couldnt go to war. What was I thinking?Trying to shake off my building panic attack, I headed back toward the castle, wanting to hide in my room for a while. I passed Rurik along the way. Hed evidently been seeking me, hoping Id go talk to the gathered soldiers and inspire them-particularly since word had come that Dorian was almost here. I nodded quickly, promising anything, so long as I could get a moment to compose myself and summon my earlier confidence. All of this was overwhelming me. I needed to be alone, lest I start crying.Only, I was simply still a ways from being left alone. Ysabel was standing outside my bedroom, arms crossed. Apparently, my earlier suspicions had been right. She really did hang out in the hall waiting for me.No magic lessons, I told her.Magic lessons? she exclaimed, straightening up. She was as immaculate as ever, her red hair twisted into myriad braids. Im never teaching you anything again. My lord is send me away-and all because of youThe land might have healed me, but there were only so many weird revelations I could handle today. Jasmine becoming my ally currently held the lions share. What are you talking about?My lord is on his way, she hissed. And he sent word that I was to pack up my things and be prepared to leave. He has a small group of guards ready to escort me away.So? I shrugged, eyeing my entry longingly. Isnt that what you wanted?She took a step toward me. Hes not sending me back to the castle. Hes sending me back to my village-back to my children. Dont you understand? Hes through with me Hes hurl me aside because of youThe ang er and hate on her face made me guess shed forgotten I could suffocate her. As it was, she was in my personal space so much that I feared she might actually attempt physical blows. I wanted to tell her that Dorian casting her aside had little to do with me. That was just Dorians way. Shaya had said Ysabel was one in a string of mistresses who resembled me. Hed grown tired of her, just like the rest, but that wasnt my fault. copulation her that wouldnt help, though. Im sorry. But, I mean, wont you be glad to see your kids?Glad? she cried. What do I have to give them? What do I have to show for my time at court? I have nothing. I came to Dorians court to improve my childrens lives-to bring us wealth. Now I have to return empty-handed, tossed aside to our backwoods village.Ouch. I didnt know what to say, didnt know whether to laud a mothers attempts to improve her kids lives or look down on someone whod tried to do it via sleeping with a king.Im sorry, I said wearily. Im sure youll fig ure out something.I started to turn away, and to my astonishment, she grabbed my shoulder and spun me toward her. I think shed been about to hurl an insult, but I gave her no chance. I still wasnt ready to be touched, and shed caught me off guard. With no second thoughts, my instincts summoned up magic, the air shoving her away from me and slamming her-hard-into a wall. She stood there, dazed, and I gasped, horrified at what Id brutally done without even thinking. I really was turning into my fathers daughter.Are you okay? I asked, stepping toward her when she didnt move.She jerked away from me, which I hoped meant no concussion. This isnt over. I will never forgive you for victorious him from me Ill make you pay. Hes mine. Do you understand? Mine.This was followed by a whole tirade of ranting and insults about how much she hated me and would see me destroyed. She kept her distance, though, so plainly my brief lapse into violence had done some good. After a while, I had no patienc e for it and simply went into my bedroom, leaving her out there. I locked the door but could still hear her going on and on.Remembering Rurik saying that I should go out and talk to the people who could possibly be end for me, I tried to distract myself from Ysabel by looking through the rooms closet. I figured I should probably wear something gentry, and Nia had kept me well-stocked. The spark was rekindling in me, that need to take revenge against Leith and show Katrice we couldnt be pushed around. I would prove a strong leader for those out there. I was pulling out a silver blue silk dress that looked suitable when Ysabels shouting finally stopped. With a sigh of relief, I started to drape the dress over a chair-and caught a glimpse out the small window.There was an army out there.I immediately backed away, trying to block out the sea of faces encamped outside. I dropped the dress, feeling dizzy. The reality of it all hit me, and I again felt helpless and out of my league. A sha rp knock sounded on the door, momentarily breaking through my panic. Anger was an easier perception to deal with, and I hurried over, yanking the door open.Look, I told you theres nothing I can do about-I stopped. It wasnt Ysabel outside my door.It was Dorian.

Analyzing the functions of music in upcoming Rappers Essay

Prach Lys Power Territory and Rice functions as a link between his heritage as a Cambodian and his ambition to give back to those who became targets in the tragedy of Cambodia. He chokes the lyrics in a agitating rhythm which sets the tonality for the listeners in a grave and arguably concerned poise deeming his lyrics to be of a serious nature. His rap therefore takes a pellucid tone that is akin to the musical function of other rappers who compose lyrics around their precarious invigorationstyles in the ghettos and their fight for survival amongst the hostility they are faced with everyday.As Prach relays in the telephonic interview, his urge to make music was met with a purpose around the time he discovered the true extent of the tragedies that were faced with the Cambodian people (Ly, 2004). Even though he was born at the time of the Cambodian massacre, his memory was only riddled with sparse recollections of the chaos, and through the eyes of his pal he managed to piece the m together and write about it, his lyrics reconnecting with the adults who understood and the kids who appreciated alike.His intention was to use his music for emotional expression, a function that allows the artist to communicate more effectively than normal speech. While this sat well with the adult listeners, the song also seemed to incorporate the function of entertainment for the younger listeners. On a bigger picture, the powerful lyrics also contribute to the integration of society, largely educating the people of the struggle of the Cambodian people and reinvigorating their sense of compassion for them. Mandeep Sethis Adair Sethi is more think on hip-hop as an art form that educates as well as entertains (Sethi, 2009).While he considers music as a tool for the oppressed, Adair shows that he intends the song to function primarily as a fusion of entertainment and emotional expression given the beat it follows and the lyrics that surround the regular questions about life and r eligion. His intention is further made vivid by the line Music has its own sound, as it invites the listener to indulge further into the entertainment function part still engaging in the mystical side of the rhythm that each artist utilizes in order to communicate a message. Sikh Knowledges Ch-ChingThe music here functions primarily as a form of emotional expression. The slow beat and rhythm perfectly complements the mood that Knowledge is trying to set, and his lyrics, which discuss the conflict in Palestine, particularly the ruins of Gaza, aim squarely to inform those who do not know and those who sympathize equally. This function of music is of course a utility(prenominal) that highlight matters of grave concern to the public or a specific community and Knowledge reinvigorates the feeling by mentioning other more entertainment oriented music such as two-step bhangra and declaring that this song is nothing like them.Thus, he expresses himself in rap of matters that he finds dee ply emotional putting himself on the Palestinian side of the battle. Conclusion One prevailing characteristic of the aforementioned rappers is their Asian American ethnicity, and it is evident that their origins greatly encourages their listeners to see their viewpoints, just like their chosen genre sets them up against stigmas of being unable to thrive in a field dominated by African Americans. The subject matter of the song, thus, becomes very all-important(a) and the function of music in turn plays a much more important role in determining success.It is interesting to note that the rapper acquires word meaning a lot easily amongst people of his race before anywhere else as was the case with Prach who became a no. 1 hit in Cambodia whereas he composed the album elsewhere. It can easily be concluded from the popularity of these rappers that their ethnic origins account for a large percentage of their success, since that success takes root in rootage instance amongst the people of their own race. References Ly, P. (2004). Art of faCt An Interview with praCh. (S. May, Interviewer) Sethi, M. (2009, October 26). The Brown Underground. (N. Dhillon, Interviewer)

Stakeholder Theory

The Stakeholder possibility Charles Fontaine Antoine Haarman Stefan Schmid December 2006 Stakeholder possibility of the MNC Index 1. fundament . 3 2. introductory liking of the Stakeholder theory and Definition .. 3 2. 1. 2. 2. 2. 3. 2. 4. 2. 5. The stakeholder creation customary and tr block offy.. 4 Different definitions of Stakeholder 5 What is a Stakeholder? .. 6 Who atomic good turn 18 Stakeholders? 6 History of the Stakeholder possibleness 7 3. Contribution of freeman to the stakeholder publications 9 3. 1. 3. 2. freewoman Strategic precaution freemans essential bulk A stakeholder approach .. 10 4. Normative, slavish, and descriptive stakeholder theory. 13 4. 1. Introduction.. 13 4. 2. Normative theory.. 14 4. 2. 1. Objective.. 4 4. 2. 2. The ful convey of a confederation should be ethic 15 4. 2. 3. freemans prescriptive theory . 15 4. 3. analytical theory 17 4. 3. 1. Introduction. 17 4. 3. 2.Strategic circumspection freewoman (1984) and raging et Al. (1991).. 18 4. 3. 3. Stakeholder identification Mitchell, Agle and Wood (1997) 21 4. 3. 4. Friedman and Miles (2002) 22 5. The stakeholders from theory to pr personationice 24 5. 1. 5. 2. 5. 3. 5. 4. The embodied favorable office theory . 4 The leash primary(prenominal) sure of the CSR .. 26 The contrasting CSR strategies 28 The Limits of the theory and its occupation . 30 6. Conclusion 33 2 Stakeholder system of the MNC 1. IntroductionIn our construct we want to conthrough the convention summate acrosss of the stakeholder theory. The f work on that the stakeholder plan has achieved widespread popularity among academics, media and motorbuss we work out that it is an consequential underpickings to bring few ashes into whole those confusing approaches around to the stakeholder concept. At the beginning we go away comment on the basic estimation of the stakeholder theory. We forget besides try to give a out-of-doors definition of what the concept is all almost. freeman who has contributed a mint to this approach provide be the main(prenominal) choke draw off in our work.We will also give a brief overview of the direct statement of the stakeholder concept and how it developed and wherefore it became so popular lately. After that we will apologise in a bit to a greater extent detail the importance for organic law attention to stakeholders. Further on we want to enter how the stakeholder concept has been realized by companies. At the end of the paper we want to order of battle the application and the makes of the stakeholder theory. In general the goal of our work is to give a reform understanding of the stakeholder concept and make readers sensitive astir(predicate) how the stakeholder concept could transplant perplexity apply. . Basic idea of the Stakeholder Theory and Definition The traditional definition of a stakeholder is any group or several(prenominal) who posterior tinct or is change by the achievement of the memorial t equal to(p)ts objectives (freewoman 1984). The general idea of the Stakeholder concept is a redefinition of the ecesis. In general the concept is about what the face should be and how it should be conceptualized. Friedman (2006) states that the organization itself should be thought of as grouping of stakeholders and the subroutine of the organization should be to manage their interests, needs and viewpoints.This stakeholder management is thought to be fulfilled by the managers of a firm. The managers should on the nonp atomic number 18il hand manage the companionship for the benefit of its stakeholders in revision to ensure their rights and the participation in determination making and on the separate 3 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC hand the management must act as the stockholders doer to ensure the survival of the firm to safeguard the long status stakes of distributively group. The definition of a stakeholder, the purpose and the character of the o rganization and the role of managers atomic number 18 very un recognise and contested in belles-lettres and has changed over the categorys. plain the father of the stakeholder concept changed his definition over the time. In cardinal of his latest definitions freewoman (2004) demarcates stakeholders as those groups who are vital to the survival and achievement of the potentiometer. In cardinal of his latest publications Freeman (2004) adds a new formula, which reflects a new trend in stakeholder theory. In this principle in his smell the make outation of the perspective of the stakeholders themselves and their activities is also very important to be taken into the management of companies. He states The principle of stakeholder recourse.Stakeholders whitethorn bring an performance against the directors for failure to perform the required trading of care (Freeman 2004). All the mentioned thoughts and principles of the stakeholder concept are cognise as normative stakeho lder theory in hold ins. Normative Stakeholder theory contains theories of how managers or stakeholders should act and should view the purpose of organization, based on some respectable principle (Friedman 2006). An opposite approach to the stakeholder concept is the so called descriptive stakeholder theory. This theory is line of worked with how managers and stakeholders actually be progress to and how they view their actions and roles.The instrumental stakeholder theory turn tos with how managers should act if they want to flavor and work for their own interests. In some literature the own interest is conceived as the interests of the organization, which is normally to maximize profit or to maximize shareholder value. This think if managers treat stakeholders in line with the stakeholder concept the organization will be more conquestful in the long run. Donaldson and Preston (1995) bear do this three-way categorization of approaches to the stakeholder concept kind of fam ous. 2. 1.The stakeholder concept popular and trendy In the past view years the concept of stakeholders has boomed a lot and academics wrote a lot about the government issue. and also non-governmental organizations (NGOs), regulators, media, lineage and policymakers are thinking about the 4 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC concept and are trying to implement it in some way or the different. Most contributions are particularly about the normative principle. They promote the mountain of the caller-out and the role of managers whose objective is mainly to maximize shareholder value in drift to be sustainable.However, this perspective seems to be giving way to that trouble has more and broader responsibilities. Those are best typesetd in terms of the stakeholder approach. An new(prenominal) reason why this topic is very popular and contested among theorists is that there is go away an amount of contesting literature around which is tried to be replaced and up dated. Along with the popularity has come a richness of different overlapping approaches to the stakeholder concept. This has led to a confusing situation in this sector. In order to deal with this conceptual con fusion a number of classification schemes have been developed.The most famous literature contribution which makes the billet betwixt normative and strategic or analytical stakeholder theory was done by Donaldson and Preston in 1995. We will discuss this concept of stakeholders in more detail later on in our paper. 2. 2. Different definitions of Stakeholder As a consequence of the booming of the stakeholder concept and the literature written about the topic a lot of different definitions of stakeholder developed. The exercising of the stakeholder approach in big variety of context brings some criticism to the concept with it.Friedman (2006) mentions That group of writers comes to coalesce around particular genial constructions of reality, leading to writers referring to stakeholders with out being advised of relevant theoretical issues that have been raised in other literatures. Roberts and Mahoney (2004) have examined 125 accounting studies that use the stakeholder language and found that nearly 65 percent use the term stakeholder without reference to any rendering of stakeholder theory. The important thing is that writers use the same label to refer to a lot different concepts.This of course depose have great consequences on ethical, policy, and strategic conclusions. 5 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC 2. 3. What is a Stakeholder? In the book of Freeman (1984) the earliest definition is practically credited to an home(a) memo report of the Stanford research ground (SRI) in 1963. They pose them as those groups without whose support the organization would cease to exist. Freeman (2004) has move to use this definition in a modified form those groups who are vital to the survival and success of the organization.This definition is entirely organization orientated so the academic circles prefer the definition of Freeman (1984) where he defines stakeholders as any group or individual who rump displace or is bear upon by the achievement of the organization objectives. About twenty of the 75 definitions share this definition. Friedman (2006) states that this definition is more equilibrize and much broader than the definition of the SRI. The phrase sack affect or is affected by seems to include individuals of orthogonal the firm and groups may consider themselves to be stakeholders of an organization, without the firm considering them to be much(prenominal).A more detailed distinction and analysis of the different definitions would go far beyond the extent of this paper. 2. 4. Who are Stakeholders? A very customary way of differentiating the different kinds of stakeholders is to consider groups of pack who have classifiable dealinghips with the organization. Friedman (2006) pith that there is a clear transactionhip between definition s of what stakeholders and identification of who are the stakeholders. The main groups of stakeholders are Customers Employees Local communities Suppliers and distributors ShareholdersIn addition other groups and individuals are considered to be stakeholders in the literature of Friedman (2006) 6 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC The media The public in general argumentation partners Future generations Past generations (founders of organizations) Academics Competitors NGOs or activists considered individually, stakeholder representatives Stakeholder representatives such as trade unions or trade associations of suppliers or distributors Financiers other than stockholders (dept holders, bondholders, creditors) Competitors Government, regulators, policymakers Managers are treated differently in the literature. Some regard them as stakeholders others embody them in the organizations actions and responsibilities. A very interesting view of managers came from Aoki (1984), w ho saw managers as referees between investors and employees. Of course all categories of stakeholder groups could be defined more finely. For example media could be split up into radio, television and print media, or employees as blue-collar and white collar workers, or in terms for which department they work.An prefer of better categories of stakeholders is that by doing so more homogeneous grouping of people is more likely. The negative fact about this would be the greater chance of overlap of interests and actions. 2. 5. History of the Stakeholder Theory In the mid-1980 a stakeholder approach to schema came up. One focal point in this movement was the publication of Richard Edward Freeman. He is generally credited with popularizing the stakeholder concept. The rubric of the work is Strategic Management and barely the subtitle is A Stakeholder Approach and came out in 1984. Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Doing this he indicated that his view of the stakeholder concept was don e from the perspective of the come with. He built on the process work of Ian Mitroff, Richard Mason and James Emshoff. Actually the use of the word stakeholder came from the pioneering work done at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in the 1960s. They further were heavily influenced by several concepts that were developed in the planning department of the Lockheed phoner and these ideas were developed from the researching done by Igor Ansoff and Robert Steward.Ansoff was around 1960s working for the SRI in association with Lockheed (Friedman 2006). It is also clear that duty leaders were thinking and expressing the stakeholder concept long before the early 1960s. Dodd (1932) states that already GEC was identifying cardinal main groups which whom they had to deal with. Those four groups were defined as shareholders, employees, customers, and the general public. Further, Preston and Sapieca (1990) mentioned that Johnson & Johnson identified customers, employees, managers, and the g eneral public in 1947.The confederacy Sears named four parties to any demarcation in the order of their importanceas customers, employees, community and stockholdersin the year 1950. Schilling (2000) that the start of thinking about the stakeholder concept was the work of Follet in 1918. Friedman (2006) considers Here a concern about the corporation, which emerged along with the origins of the corporation as a reasoned entity which he, calls the soulless corporation. This shows a clean-living or normative vacuum that has favored ideas of how this could or should be dealt with.In order so fill this vacuum the stakeholder concept has come up to handle this demand. By distinguishing in this work between pre- and postFreeman (1984) it should be easier to understand why the stakeholders approach has become so popular during the last twenty years. Generally important to know is that from the start on the stakeholder approach grew out of management practice. 8 Stakeholder Theory of th e MNC 3. Contribution of Freeman to the stakeholder literature 3. 1. Freeman Strategic ManagementAn argument for the more frequently used stakeholder concept in the early 1980s could be the changes among workers, students, consumer groups and milieualists in the late 1960s. One possibility of arguing about the schooling of this field is to see the planning process as becoming increasingly sensitive to the business purlieu and the need for secure cultivation about it. Friedman (2006) has the opinion that at the time where the SRI came up with their memo they called for information systems to scan and track stakeholder responses to changes in corporate strategy as part of this surroundings.The SRI has developed measures of satisfaction for the stakeholder groups who they have found. Freeman (1984) noted that planners did not want to attempt to influence specific stakeholder demeanor rather they cherished get byly to forecast the future surround in order to adapt it with the capabilities of the company. In the 1960s the environment was very stable, relatively static and kind of predictable. Freeman (1984) stated that prior to his work, the strategic planning literature did hardly consider stakeholders, and when, only very undefined, as generic groups, and only decriminalise or golden stakeholders.The groups like competitors or other rivals were left out. The literature of that time just developed simplistic approaches for considering the environment the stakeholders were ignored. Porter (1980) for example was one theorist who dealt with the environment and split it up into his SWOT analyses (strength, creakyness, opportunities and threats). Friedman (2006) mentions an interesting exception. Ansoff who was a bring out contributor to the strategy literature from the 1960s to the 1970s and was part of the Lockheed-Stanford connection that produced the initial stakeholder definition.He defines objectives as decision rules which enable management to guid e and measure the firms performance towards its purpose and responsibilities as obligations which the firm undertakes to discharge and not part of the firms internal guidance and chink mechanism (Ansoff1965). Another interesting contribution he make is that the distinction of constraints which he defined as 9 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC decision rules which exclude definite options from the corporations freedom action such as certain rules or regulations enacted by the government. 3. 2.Freemans essential book A stakeholder approach The main idea behind the book of Freemans book titled Strategic Management, A Stakeholder Approach, was to try to grade a framework that was responsive to the concerns of managers who were being confronted with unprecedented levels of environmental turbulence and change. He pleadd (Freeman 1984) Gone are the good old days of worrying only about taking products and services to market, and gone is the public utility of management theories which conc entrate on efficiency and effectiveness within this product-market framework.Traditional strategy frameworks were not helping managers anymore to develop new strategic directions and also did not help creating new opportunities. Freeman (1984) said that current theories are inconsistent with both the quantity and kinds of change that are occurring in the business environment of the 1980s. Turbulence organizations are facing the need for new management and a new conceptual framework was. And his approach was a response to this challenge. In Freemans (1984) opinion it was not abounding to solve the calls for increased productivity using the methods from Japan or Europe.He believes that business-labor-government cooperation is only part of the solution. both internal and external change has meant that the model of the organization as a mere imagery-converter is no continuing valid and suitable. Internal change includes owners, customers, employees and suppliers. External change for Freeman (1984) includes The emergence of new groups, nonethelessts and issues which cannot be readily understood within the framework of an existing model or theory.It makes us uncomfortable because it cannot be readily assimilated into the relatively more comfortable relationships with suppliers, owners, customers and employees. It originates n the murky area labeled environment and affects our might to cope with internal changes. 10 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Some examples for external change would have be the expansion of government activities, the increase in foreign competition, the 1960s environmentalist movement associated with the publication of Rachel Carsons The smooth spring (1962) and the formation of the Environmental Protection Acts. the growth of groups concerned with special interests such as gasoline control or abortion, and also the media became more important in business. All those changes favored the need of a new model of the organization. Freeman (198 4) made his view of the firm with the common hub-andspoke picture (see Figure 1). Managers are not mentioned because they work within the firm and so they are assumed to be within the hub. weighty to know is that Freeman notes that the illustration of his diagram is very oversimplified and as already mentioned the groups shown can be abject down into more specific categories (see Section 2. . ). Freeman chose the word Stakeholder on the basis of the traditional term stockholder which takes only a look at the economic point of view. Where the stakeholders are defined as any group of individual who is affected by or can affect the achievement of an organizations objectives (Freeman 1984). 11 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Figure 1 Stakeholder constitute of a MNC / Source Freeman (1984) Owners semipolitical Activists 12 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC The purpose of stakeholder management was to create methods to manage the different groups and relationships that departed in a strat egic fashion.Further Freeman (1984) thinks that the idea of stakeholders, or stakeholder management, or a stakeholder approach to strategic management, suggests that managers must mull over and implement processes which satisfy all and only those groups who have a stake in the business. The main task in this process is to manage and integrate the relationships and interests of shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, communities and other groups in a way that guarantees the long-term success of the firm.A stakeholder approach is very much concerned about active management of the business environment, relationships and the publicity of shared interests in order to develop business strategies. But due to the fact that a lot of different stakeholder concepts are around in literature in order to get a better overview the next chapter will go in more detail in the contribution to the literature done by Donaldson and Preston (1995) who distinguish between normative and strategic or analytical stakeholder theory. 4. Normative, instrumental, and descriptive stakeholder theory 4. 1. IntroductionFreemans work Strategic Management A stakeholder Approach (1984) offers a managerial and applicatory scope and does not really constitute a theory. But it has constituted a base for the knowledge of the stakeholder theory, witch have been widely developed since the 1980s. Stakeholder concept gave rise to heterogenic theoretical developments witch have been summarized in Donaldson and Preston Article The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation Concepts, Evidence, and Implications (1995). They suggested that the stockholder theory literature can be seen as three branches 13Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Descriptive The aim is to understand how managers deal with Stakeholders and how they represent their interests. The corporation is viewed as a constellation of interests, some time competitive and some time concerted. The analytic theory will show how the MNC can deal wit h these divergent interests of stakeholders. Instrumental Approach Study the organizational consequences of taking into account stakeholders in management examining the connections between the practice of stakeholder management and the achievement of different corporate brass instrument goals. Normative recognition of moral or philosophical guidelines linked to the activities or the management of corporations. Donaldson and Preston argue that if these three approaches are have without acknowledgement it would result to confusion. First we will study the normative approaches of the stakeholder theory witch are considered by many as the core of the theory, and so we will study the Instrumental and descriptive theory (analytic), and we will finally try to find common concepts of the stakeholder theories. 4. 2. Normative theory 4. 2. . Objective The objective of the normative theory is to answer the pastime questions, what are the responsibilities of the company in respect of sta keholders? and why companies should take care of other interests than shareholders interests? . The normative theory is linked to moral, values and philosophic purposed. For Donaldson and Preston (1995) the normative theory is the core of the stakeholder theory. For them stakeholders have a legitimate interest in MNCs and their interests have 14 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC intrinsic value.But Freeman think that the idea of Donaldson and Preston suppose a separation between economics and ethics spheres. For Freeman every organization theory incorporates a moral dimension, even if it is most of the time implicit. For many authors relationships between the firm and stakeholders are based on moral commitments. Not only to optimize profit managing stakeholders relationships in an optimal way. The relations between firms and its stakeholder can be valuable for the company as a reflection of it values and principles. individually company should define fundamental moral principles, and use these principles as a basis for decision making. . 2. 2. The action of a company should be ethic One pillar of the normative stakeholder theory is that the company decisions affect stakeholder outcomes and has to be ethic. In this kind of situation, when the action of an agent affects an other agent, the company has to build ethics principles. Decisions made without any consideration of their impact are usually thought to be unethical. Donaldson and Preston (1995) state that the stakeholder interests has an intrinsic cost not indirectly linked to the company interests. A firm should not ignore claims of stakeholders simply because recognise them does not serve its strategic interests.The firm should build principles or rules of the game on how the company should pass away building scale downs with stakeholders. 4. 2. 3. Freemans normative theory Evan and Freeman (1990) tried to build a normative theory based on this definition of stakeholders Those groups who are vital to th e survival and success of the corporation. It means customers, employees, suppliers, communities, shareholders and managers. Evan and Freeman call for a redefinition of the purposes of the firm to act as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholders interests.They shoot for two principles 15 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Principle of corporate legitimacy. The company should be managed for the benefit of its stakeholders. Stakeholders must inscribe in decisions that substantially affect their welfare. The stakeholder fiduciary principle. Managers must act in the interests of the stakeholders as their agent in the interests of the corporation to ensure the survival of the firm. Managers have the same duties than other employees but they also have a duty of safeguarding the welfare of the firm.For making stakeholder management practicable Evan and Freeman propose a stakeholder board of directors comprising representatives of the fiver stakeholder groups, plus a director witch would be e lected unanimously by the others and be vested with the duty of caring for all stakeholders. One year later in doctrine of fair contracts Freeman develops how contracts can be made between the corporation and stakeholders. In the model stakeholder representatives are assumed to be rationally self interested and to understand the implications of different corporate designs for success or failure.In this condition parties should pack the six follo acquireg rules (Doctrine of fair contracts Freeman 1994) The principle of entry and exit The contract has to define process that clarify entry, exit and renegotiation conditions for stakeholders to decide when an agreement can be fulfilled The principle of governance Procedures for changing the rules of the game must be agreed by unanimous consent. This would lead to stakeholder governing board. The principle of externalities If contract between A and B involve C, C has to be invited as a fellowship of the contract.The principle of co ntracting be Each parties must share in the cost of contracting The spot principle Any party must serve the interests of all stakeholders 16 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC The principle of especial(a) immortality The corporation should be managed as if it can continue to serve the interests of stakeholders through time. These principles represent an ideal to guide actual stakeholders in devising a corporate constitution or charter. It permits to build strategy on ethics asking what do a company stand for? in conjunction with it strategy decisions. 4. . Analytic theory 4. 3. 1. Introduction Has we have seen in the introduction the analytic part of the stakeholder theory is composed of what Donaldson and Preston called the instrumental and the descriptive approach. The objective is to understand how managers deal with stakeholders, how they represent their interests and the impact of the stakeholder approach in the achievement of various corporate goals. We are exhalation to cons ider an organization centric view of the stakeholder theory witch mean that the firm is considered to be the nexus of the interests of each stakeholder.This is the vision of Freeman and his model has seen contributions of Savage (1991), Clarkson (1995), Jones (1995), and Mitchell, Agle, and Wood (1997). The analytic theory is necessary to answer the question how to organize into hierarchy stakeholders influence? Each author has a different point of view and we are going to see each model, theory or contribution. Even if their theories converge in order to find a unique stakeholder theory, there are still differences and the authors have not found a consensus yet. 17 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC 4. 3. 2.Strategic management Freeman (1984) and Savage et Al. (1991) Freeman gave two definitions of a stakeholder Group of people who can affect or can be affected by the achievement of the organizations objectives (1984) Those groups who are vital to the survival of the organization (200 4) Belong to him, in order to enhance an organizations stakeholder management it is necessary to begin by defining who the stakeholders of the corporation are. If we apply his definition, it means who are those groups who can affect or can be affected by the achievement of the organizations purpose?This mean mapping the stakeholders, providing detailed list of the specific groups and companies link to each category of stakeholders, and a corresponding list of interests. For Freeman the corporation occupies a central coiffure and has direct connections to all Stakeholders (see Figure 1 pg. 11). Freeman suggests that each MNC should distinguish important stakeholders and negligible stakeholders. For him the MNC has to limit the number of stakeholders and to not take care of inoffensive stakeholders.To facilitate important stakeholder mapping Freeman suggests the following question Who are our current and potential stakeholders? What are their interests/rights? How does each stakeholder affect us? How do we affect each stakeholder What assumption does our current strategy make about each important stakeholder? What are the environmental variables that affect us and our stakeholder? How do we measure each of these variables and their impact? How do we keep score with our stakeholders? 18 Stakeholder Theory of the MNCIn order to find the optimal strategy for each group of stakeholder Freeman suggests analyzing the stakeholder behavior and possible coalitions between stakeholders groups. The stakeholder behavior can be delineated investigating in the past actions of such kind of groups. It is necessary to analyze the actual behavior of stakeholders, their cooperative potential and competitive threats. Coalition may develop if different groups of stakeholder have common interests or common issues linked to the activity of the MNC. They can then form a more powerful group witch has to be taken into account.For Freeman manager should scan the environment for instance of similar actions, interests, beliefs, or objectives between stakeholders groups. The formation of a coalition can change stakeholder strategy and positions on issues. These two analysis lead to a more realistic map of companys stakeholders. It also allows the manager to construct a logical systemal explanation to explain why specific stakeholders act in a particular way. The company has to determine the long terms objectives of each groups and consider the stakeholders as rational. This map of stakeholders allows finding the optimal strategy for each group.Freeman is going to consider two variables to determine the optimal strategy the relative power of stakeholders and their potential to cooperate or queer corporate strategy. Savage et Al. (1991) gave guidance on the measurement of these variables. The power of threat is determined by resource dependence, the stakeholders ability to form coalitions, and relevance of the threat to particular issue. The potential to coope rate is determined by the stakeholders capacity to expand its dependence with the organization the greater is the dependence, the greater is the willingness to cooperate.As a result Savage et Al. distinguish four types if stakeholders Supportive high cooperative potential and low competitive threat. Considered as the ideal type and it includes the board of trustees, managers, employees, parent companies, suppliers, service providers and non-profit organizations. 19 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Marginal low cooperative potential and competitive threat. Includes consumers interest groups, professional association for employees and shareholders. Non-supportive low cooperative potential and high competitive threat.Includes competitors, unions, media and government. Mixed Blessing high cooperative potential and competitive threat. Includes client and organizations with complimentary products and services. Freeman distinguishes four main strategies depending of the type of stakehold ers Offensive strategy Should be adopted when a group is supportive. It includes trying to change stakeholder objectives or lights, to adopt the stakeholder position or to link the program to others that the stakeholder views more favorably. Defensive strategy Should be adopted when a group is Non supportive.The objective is to counteract competitive threat on the part of these stakeholders. It means reinforcing current beliefs about the firm, maintaining existing programs or letting the stakeholder drive the integration process. Swing strategy Should be adopted when a group is Mixed blessing. The firm has to take decisions such as changing the rules, the decision forum, the transaction process Hold strategies Should be adopted when a group is marginal. The company should hold its current position and continue current strategic program. Has we can see Freeman but also Savage et al. o a separation of stakeholders regarding the cooperative potential and the competitive threat. 2 0 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Clarkson (1995) introduce a distinction between primary stakeholders and secondary stakeholders. master(a) stakeholders as those without whose continuing participation, the corporation cannot survive as a going concern, suggesting that these relationships are characterized by mutual interdependence. Secondary stakeholders are not vital for the MNC. Primary stakeholders are the partners of the firm whereas secondary stakeholders have voluntary relationships with the firm. 4. 3. 3.Stakeholder identification Mitchell, Agle and Wood (1997) The major contribution for relationships between managers and stakeholders and the way to categorize them comes from Mitchell, Agle, and Wood (1997). They tried to find a model to explain logically why managers should consider certain classes of entities as stakeholders and how prioritize stakeholder relationships. They put forward three objective criterions in order to organize into hierarchy stakeholders of a company the stakeholders power to influence the firm, the legitimacy of the stakeholders relationship with the firm and the essential of the stakeholders claim of the firm.These three criterions can be combined and it lead to seven stakeholders types (see figure 2). There are three types of power Coercive power based on physical resources of force, violence, or restrain useful power based on monetary or temporal resources Normative power based on symbolic resources such as being able to command attention of the media But it is not the only way to classify a stakeholder as a high antecedency. Legitimacy is required to provide authority.They use the Suchmans definition of legitimacy a general perception that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some mixerly constructed system of norms, values, beliefs and definitions. Urgency is based on time sensitivity, the degree to witch managerial delay in attending to the claim is unacceptable fro the stakehol der, or critically. Urgency 21 3 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Stakeholder Type Latent 1. Dormant 2. Discretionary 3. Demanding Expectant 4. Dominant 5. Dangerous 6. Dependant Highly big 7.Definitive Figure 2 Model of stakeholder salience / Source Mitchell, Agle, and Wood (1997) All attributes can be gain as well as lost. A stakeholder is a low priority if only one attribute is recognizes, he became a moderate priority if two attributes are held and a high priority if the three attributes are perceived. Possession of an attribute is subjective. Sometime a stakeholder may not be aware of possessing an attribute, but at the end it is the manager who decides witch stakeholder has this or another characteristic.So manager could wrongly perceive the field, and should ask the questions Freeman uses for mapping stakeholders. Furthermore this possession is also dynamic. For example for Nike, NGOs were only legitimate at the beginning, but became compulsion with the media support and the n powerful with the boycott appeal. 4. 3. 4. Friedman and Miles (2002) Friedman and Miles (2002) use two criterions to define firms stakeholder relationships. Their typology of organization-stakeholder relations is based on two distinctions Compatible or absurd in terms of sets of ideas and material interests 2 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Necessary or contingent. Necessary relationships are internal to a cordial social system or to a set of logically connected ideas. Contingent relations are not integrally connected. As a result four relationships between MNC and stakeholders are distinguished. For each of them they encourage certain strategic actions. Necessary Type A Defensive Compatible Shareholders Top management Partners Type D agree Trade unions Low-level employees Incompatible Government Customers Creditors Some NGOsContingent Type B Opportunism The general public Companies connected through Common trade association Type E Competition/ emptying Criminal Members of the public Some NGOs Type A Necessary compatible relationships when all parties have something to win this connection. It is so logic to protect this relationship as a strategy. 23 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Type B contingent compatible institutional arrangements. The two parties have the same interest but there is no direct relationship between parties. An opportunistic strategy is the logical strategy. Type C contingent incompatible institutional arrangements.The two parties have separate, opposite and unconnected set of idea or interests. It becomes a problem when one of two parties insists on its position. The strategy corresponds of defending its own interest by seeking to eat or by discrediting oppositional views. Type D Necessary incompatible relations occur when material interests are necessarily related to each other, but their operations will lead to the relationship itself being threatened. The situational logic is concession and compromise. As we can see stakeholder the ories, normative and analytic, are widely different between propagation and authors. . The stakeholders from theory to practice. 5. 1. The Corporate Social accountability theory The way businesses involve the shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, governments, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, and other stakeholders is usually a key feature of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) concept. According to the Commission Green account (2001), the CSR is a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis.Amongst other things, this definition helps to emphasize that An important aspect of CSR is how enterprises interact with their internal and external stakeholders (employees, customers, neighbors, non-governmental organizations, public authorities, etc. ) 24 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC CSR covers social and environmental i ssues, in spite of the face term corporate social state CSR is not or should not be separate from business strategy and operations it is about integrating social and environmental concerns into business strategy and operations CSR is a voluntary concept. The social responsibility is presented as the consideration of the expectations of the stakeholders and the fact, for the company, of answering to the consequences of its decisions to these stakeholders. At the pragmatic level, this approach is often summarized by the concept of triple bottom line (John Elkington) that is the consideration in the management of economic, environmental and social objectives. Companies are dependent on stakeholders to obtain the necessary resources for their survival and for their development.The legitimacy of the company to use these resources depends on the correspondence of its behavior to rules and values recognized by the company it will obtain a pass to operate on the condition of not being c onsidered as a predator of the natural and social environment. It is about a utilitarian legitimacy. The employees, when they have the choice, will prefer to work in a socially creditworthy company. The consumers tell, in inquiries, to prefer goods produced in the respect for the fundamental rights of the work.Besides the financial performances, the investors integrate, in their choices of portfolios, the pretend of loss of reputation capital , which can also be translated by a loss of financial capital. Substantial or symbolic, the strategies of correspondence answer different constraints The constraints imposed by the law and matched by penalties we define the exercise of the social responsibility as to go beyond the only respect for the legal obligations.The motivating of certain companies to set up devices of social responsibility is often connected to the anticipation of a change of the legislation, especially in the environmental domain. 25 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC The professional environment generally promulgates the normative constraints their espousal can be made on a voluntary base which values the commitment of the company. The mimetic constraints are going to lead certain companies to imitate the others, for example the best practices of some pro-actives leaders, and this, especially if the environment is uncertain and ambiguous. . 2. The three main current of the CSR Within the literature in management, the contemporary debate on the responsibility of companies took its origin in an article of Bowen1 supporting that companies should revisit their strategies by integrating the social and environmental dimensions to answer the various pressures of the society. Among the large number of articles dedicated to the social responsibility of companies, notably in the join States, it is possible to distinguish three currents the ethical moralist current BusinessEthics, the Business and rules of order current and the Social Issue Managemen t. The theories of the Business Ethics current assert the existence of a moral responsibility of companies towards the society and future generations and postulate that the company has, by nature, a statue of moral agent, able to distinguish the good and the evil, thus having the moral duty to act in a social responsible way.In spite of its gaps, this approach generated an important movement around the ethics of the business and a destination which often confuses the good and the useful , ant that is why we can find a multiplication of ethical charters, of ethical investments which are only taking advantage of the ethics in economic purposes. The Business and ordination current consider that there is no waterproof partition between the company and the society two are in interrelation and form themselves mutually by means of their constant interactions.The company maintains, with the society, relations which are not exclusively trade and it results 26 Stakeholder Theory of the M NC from it a shape of social contract authorizing a social control by the society and the possibility to punish a company refractory. So, the authors of this current assert that the contracts of cooperation, which work up the confidence between the firm and its stakeholders, get a competitive advantage to the company.The Social Issue Management current proposes tools to the administrators to improve the performance of their companies, by taking into account the expectations verbalised by various actors of the society it restores the complexity of the management by widening the field of the actors and by taking away the horizon of the decisions the expectations of the stakeholders are integrated into the strategic methods. In fact, these currents are not set and even cross together. They share the idea that what is good for the company is also good for the society.Archie B. Carroll, one of the authors the most known for the Business and Society current, elaborated a model which ma kes reference in the Anglo-Saxon world and which presents a four level pyramid. 27 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC Each of these levels depends on those which precedes it, the satisfaction of both send-off one (Economic and legal responsibilities) is requested by the society, that of the third one (ethical responsibility) is expected, that of the fourth one (philanthropic responsibility) is wished.These levels, crossed with the various groups of stakeholders, can serve as reference to define the various categories of social and environmental performance that have to be estimated (D. J. Wood, 1991). 5. 3. The different CSR strategies The integration of the stakeholders expectations in the strategies can take several forms Actions of patronage or sponsoring, creation of foundations in that case, there is a separation of the social and environmental actions and the economical actions they are used as communication theory strategies. However in some cases, 28 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC he implication of the employees in these actions modifies the economic performance of the organization. Actions integrated into the strategy, which try to implement the social and environmental dimension in the economic decisions investments, conception of products or process of production. This method, often linked to the quality method, has for objective to decrease the insecuritys and to improve the economic medium-term performances. In order to put into practice, to develop and to evaluate the actions of social responsibility, the stakeholders (and the company itself) have means, which are the piloting devices.Among them we can advert the external reporting and the internal devices of performances measures. But, the media reports certain examples of paradoxes. A paradox occurs when on a side, a company begins in an action of CSR, pledges for example concerning the durable development turn other side, accusing and detailed revelations about its practices emergent at the great day. Certain ONG as Christian Aid clearly denounced abuses on behalf of certain great multinationals in certain parts of the world. For example in the United States, McDonald illustrates a CSR with double face. model(a) company, which always wished to affirm its economic and social (even environmental) engagements, this company was criticized for non-ethical practices of businesses. At the time of the treatment of the McLibel case by British justice, this one confirmed certain complaints for ill treatment of the workers, abusive publicity and cruel treatment of the animals. February 15, 2005, the European Court of the Humans Right sliced in favor of Helen Steel and Dave Morris, (two ecologists militants) in their tug with McDonald S in the McLibel case.The lawyer of the duet declared the European Court of the Humans right considered that violations of the piece right had been made in their opposition that there had been a procedural inequity in the business and that the a dopted procedures were not equitable 29 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC In the same way, a European company as Shell largely took part as a proactive pioneer of the CSR but while missing however in 2004 to report to its shareholders a reliable evaluation of its oil stocks which melted its book value.The engagement of the company in CSR obliges it to be more transparent in the social contract than it with the other actors. It creates its own Damocles sword other authors mentioned a mortal risk by the mediatization of its actions (J-Y Trochon, 2003). Failing to honor this engagement, the company takes a media risk of reputation even of confidence by a boomerang effect. This risk will come in the event of abuse early or late to remember with force to the good memory of all those which would wish to handle the other stakeholders and the shareholders initially.The risk result in a legal sanction, or even, in a faster and frightening stock exchange sanction and destroy in fine the dearly an d patiently acquired reputation (media sanction). Enron and Parmalat are two emblematic examples, which show in the only sector of the corporate governance, on the two sides of the Atlantic, the fatal outcome of attempts of manipulation. 5. 4. The Limits of the theory and its application Milton Friedman wrote The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Profits.Friedman explains that corporations do not exist in physical reality, that only people can have responsibilities, and that businesses have no responsibilities as such. He maintains that there is one and only one social responsibility of business to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game. To earn profit is the purpose of the corporation that should engage in open and free competition without deception or fraud (Edward W. Younkins, 2006). In this view, it seems that the question of a Corporate Social Responsibility has no sense.Furthe rmore, The Freeman stakeholder definition seems to be too large and wherefore its effectuation is impossible. Indeed the managers have time-limited 30 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC resources and have to select the stakeholders which are going to hold attention. The factors that explain this choice are the power, the legitimacy and the urgency (as seen in section 4. 3. 3) The power is held by groups of actors who have the capacity to influence the current or future decisions of the firm (cf. Jeffrey Pfeffer, Gerald Salancik, 1978). The egitimacy of a group corresponds to its recognition by the society by virtue of a contract, of a moral right or of a supported risk because of the activity of the company. Certain groups are legitimate but have no power (minority shareholders, the local residents of a polluting site not organized in defense association). The urgency characterizes the stakeholders that are asking for an immediate attention. This urgency is a function of the time se nsibility and defines the delay of reaction of the manager acceptable or not by the stakeholders.It corresponds to a critic situation in general, notably in case of exposition at the risk. The rationality of the leaders is necessarily limited by the urgency of the problems, by the pressures and by the information systems that they have. It seems therefore an illusion to envisage an exhaustive consideration of all the potential stakeholders. The influence of the stakeholders thus depends on the perception of the leaders and the hierarchy that they establish between the various expectations, notably when these are contradictory.They are thus going to choose and to enact the actors who will count for the definition of their strategy. The stakeholders theory remains ambiguous concerning its foundations and presents certain number of limits. On one hand, it joins in a relational representation of the organization based on complete contracts, which suppose that the conflicts of interests can be solved by insuring a maximization of each group interests. 31 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC On the other hand, the stakeholders theory builds a reduced representation of the social and environmental responsibility of the company.What about the dumb stakeholders (fauna, flora), about the third absentees (future generations, potential victims)? What about the values or interests of the too weak parties for being represented? Can we reduce the general interest to the sum of each group of stakeholder interests? Companies are trading organizations and the leaders are in front of dilemmas that can only be solved harmonise to their more or less long-term profitability objectives. The issues depend then unwaveringly on the kinetics relations between the firm nd its stakeholder, and of the level of the expectations and the pressures of the various actors. In the calculation of the advantages and the underlying costs in the win-win strategies, the anticipation of the behavior and th e power of the stakeholders and the authorities of regulation is determining for the adoption of a socially responsible strategy. The actual consideration of social and environmental objectives in the strategies of companies depends largely on the representations which have the actors of the society of their direct or indirect power on companies.The economic logic thus remains the main axis, structuring the decisions of companies. The expectations of the stakeholders, their pressures, are the constraints which are integrated into the strategic management according to the representation of the power of these stakeholders. As argue Jean-Luc Migue, the practice of the social responsibility leads to a paradox the social responsibility implies the replacement of a managerial decision to that of the shareholders owners. As everywhere where the rights of property are eased, for example in the public sector, the individual irresponsibleness follows.The practice of the social responsibility can lead to an individual irresponsibility. On the economic level, the generalization of this practice would lead to the end of the long-term economic growth and would make thus impossible the realization of the social ends looked for by the protagonists of the social responsibility. It is necessary in this subject to return to the essential education of the 32 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC economic theory, to the market as a mechanism of penalties and rewards and in the role of the instigations on the behavior.The theory and the history demonstrate that in its research for the maximum profit for its shareholders, the company realizes the common good in sub-product, and especially, that the breathing in of do-gooders to divert it from its appropriate end that is the profit produces the exactly opposite effect that the one we suppose. 6. Conclusion The Stakeholder Theory is a quite new theory in the way it introduces the concept of stakeholders in the strategic management of a Mu ltinational Company. The purpose of the MNC is not anymore only to make profit for shareholders but also to defend an image and values respecting all stakeholders.There is of course a link between the riches of Shareholders and the wealth of all Stakeholders because the MNC need a good reputation to sell its products and so to make profits. But it has still not been clearly proven by empirical studies. The Stakeholder Theory is very popular in our times because people, and so on stakeholders, are worried about the sustainability of the actual economic system. With globalization, companies take more and more importance and are in many cases more powerful than states.In these conditions, their action can have a immense impact on the society in general, and people ask such companies to have ethic and values. With deregulation, and less power of state in favour of economy, companies should not only bang the rights of this deregulation but also duties. And that is what stakeholders (a nd in particular consumers) are asking for. Examples of Shell or Nike show that an irresponsible way of management, with low ethic or values, lead to a decreasing wealth of the first stakeholder of an MNC, its owner, shareholders.One of the main problems of the stakeholder theory is stakeholder theories One of the major contribution in Stakeholder theory is Freeman book Strategic Management A Stakeholder Approach (1984) and it is often seen as the fundament of the Stakeholder theory. Then many Economists or Sociologists have made their contribution but not always sharing Freeman concept of Stakeholders. As a signs of 33 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC these divergences we have shown that there is more than 75 definitions of Stakeholders, witch is of course the key point of the theory.This is mainly due to the fact that Stakeholder Theory is not only an economic theory, having a huge part of philosophic or sociologic concepts. But in spite of these discussions it seems possible to iden tify some propositions on witch every author agree The firm has stakeholders witch have requests, every stakeholders do not have the same influence, MNC prosperity depends of the ability of the companies to manage strategic stakeholders and the principal function of managing stakeholder is to take into account and to arbitrate stakeholders requests even when there are contradictory.In practice, contributions of these different theories at the governance level establish a new base to redefine the stakes of the company and its model of governance, analyzing them with regard to the expectations and to the interests of stakeholders. It is what led to us to analyze in our third part the concept of CSR. In the sights of what we explained, it seems that the application of the CSR can only come true, in general in the social and environmental sides, under reserve that this application does not prevent from financial profits (as the CSR slogan says doing well by doing good ).However we can notice the positioning of companies trying to take into account, in an increasing way, this new approach of governance, and this, facing to more and more strong pressures coming from the different stakeholders. Furthermore, companies are more and more urged to position themselves in front of the emergence of the sustainable development concept, and making it, the CSR seems to be an effective instrument for the integration of this concept by companies in their strategic orientation. 34 Stakeholder Theory of the MNC References Aggeri Frank, Acquier Aurelien, (2005). 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